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1. Introduction We are going to examine numerous case studies, the theories of Maslow, Herzberg, Vroom & Adam’s and other supporting evidence, in relation to job satisfaction. We will look at why the study of job satisfaction is important for managers, what factors influence job satisfaction in organisations and what is the relationship between job satisfaction and productivity. There is no direct theory regarding job satisfaction, however there are endless case studies and articles on this topic. The theories referred to all have their academic critics as well as avid supporters. Job satisfaction has been one of the most extensively discussed and studied concepts in organisational and personnel management, accounting for thousands of published works. The information generated by research into this area has practical implications for individuals and organisations alike, as employees strive for the best quality of life possible and managers are faced with the ever- increasing challenge of operating efficient, effective organisations using the human and technological resources available to them. Understanding job satisfaction and what it means is not only a desirable, but also a critical aspect of life for both organisations and individuals. 2. What is Job Satisfaction & Why is the study of it important? Job satisfaction is about how individuals feel about their jobs i.e. their attitude. It is an outcome of their perception of their jobs and the degree to which there is a good fit between them and the organisation. Numerous aspects of the job impact job satisfaction, including pay, promotional opportunities, supervisors & co-workers as well as factors of the work environment, such as policies & procedures, working conditions and fringe benefits. (Ivancevich et al. 1999: 91) A major reason why the study of job satisfaction is so important is to provide managers with ways to improve employee attitudes. The levels of employee job satisfaction are determined by many organisations from attitude surveys. It is difficult to determine the actual degree of job satisfaction from surveys, particularly in a specific department as well as a bias towards giving a positive answer. (Ivancevich et al. 1999: 92) 3. Relevant Theories There are numerous theories in relation to motivation, but no direct theory for job satisfaction. However, these theories provide aspects and important insights for managers, particularly in terms of employee needs and job satisfaction. The relevant theories and an outline of each follows; Herzberg’s two-factor theory In the late 1950s, Frederick Herzberg, considered by many to be a pioneer in motivation theory, interviewed a group of employees to find out what made them satisfied and dissatisfied on the job. He asked the employees essentially two sets of questions: 1. Think of a time when you felt especially good about your job. Why did you feel that way? 2. Think of a time when you felt especially bad about your job. Why did you feel that way? From these interviews Herzberg went on to develop his theory that there are two dimensions to job satisfaction: motivation and "hygiene" The absence of hygiene factors in the workplace causes dissatisfaction, however their presence at an acceptable level would only produce a neutral feeling. It is then argued that the opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction. It is also argued that the presence of ‘motivators’ would produce high levels of job satisfaction and motivation. ? This theory links with Maslow’s theory, in particular hygiene factors line up with security and physiological needs, as well as ‘motivators’ which aligns with the opportunity for people to satisfy their higher order needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory Abraham Maslow published his theory of human motivation in 1943. Maslow's insight was to place actualisation into a hierarchy of motivation. Self-actualization, as he called it, is the highest drive, but before a person can turn to it, he or she must satisfy other, lower motivations like hunger, safety and belonging. The hierarchy has five levels. 1. Physiological (hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, etc.) 2. Safety (security, protection from physical and emotional harm) 3. Social (affection, belonging, acceptance, friendship) 4. Esteem (also called ego). The internal ones are self-respect, autonomy, achievement and the external ones are status, recognition, and attention. 5. Self actualization (doing things) ? As is Herzberg's theory, Maslow’s theory is more widely accepted by managers than by researchers. Research findings on Maslow’s theory fail to support the existence of a needs hierarchy. Instead they suggest there is only two levels: physiological and all other needs. Maslow points out that the hierarchy is dynamic; the dominant need is always shifting. Satisfaction is relative. He notes that a satisfied need no longer motivates. For example, a hungry man may be desperate for food, but once he eats a good meal, the promise of food no longer motivates him. One of the most common critisms concerning his methodology however , revolved around only, picking a small number of people that he himself declared self-actualising, then reading about them or talking with them, and coming to conclusions about what self-actualization is in the first place. In his defence, it should point out that he understood this, and thought of his work as simply pointing the way. He hoped that others would take up the cause and complete what he had begun in a more rigorous fashion. Vroom’s expectancy theory Victor Vroom suggests that employees behave in certain ways because of the outcomes they expect as a result of their performance and because of the attractiveness of those outcomes. Vroom argues that individual choices are determined by an individual’s assessment of the relationship between effort and performance, between performance and the attainment and the value of those rewards. This theory suggests performance leads to satisfaction, but satisfaction does not lead to performance. Adams’ equity theory Adam’s theory was developed in 1965 and essentially it is about perceived fairness in the workplace. It states that people trade inputs for outcomes with inputs being effort, time, skill and outcomes being pay, recognition or opportunities for social interaction. Adam’s argues that each worker perceives a ratio of their inputs to outcomes and compares this to an appropriate person. If the ratios are not similar, the worker will see an imbalance or inequity, which then leads towards feelings of discomfort and tension, resulting in lower levels of job satisfaction. 4. Influencing factors & Related studies There are numerous dimensions associated with job satisfaction in organisations, with five in particular that have crucial characteristics. They are pay, job, promotion opportunities, supervisor and co-workers.
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